American Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences

Socioeconomic status (SES) and teacher–student relationships (TSR) have consistently been identified as important predictors of students' academic performance. Despite this, the placement and interpretation of TSR within multilevel research designs remain subjects of methodological debate. This study conceptualizes TSR as a student-level construct, reflecting individual perceptions of interactions with teachers rather than school-level characteristics. Using multilevel linear modeling, data from 4,978 students enrolled in 162 schools participating in the 2012 Programmed for International Student Assessment (PISA) in the United States were examined. A structured analytical framework was implemented, including model specification, research question development, diagnostic testing of level 1 and level-2 assumptions, model estimation, and interpretation of findings. The results confirm that higher socioeconomic status and more positive teacher–student relationships are independently associated with stronger academic achievement. However, no statistically significant evidence was found to indicate that teacher–student relationships alter the association between socioeconomic status and academic performance. To improve the accuracy of parameter estimation, plausible values were combined using Rubin's Rules, increasing the reliability of the reported results. The findings highlight the importance of distinguishing between direct and interaction effects in multilevel educational research and suggest that future investigations should adopt carefully designed sampling strategies and rigorous analytical procedures to strengthen the validity and generalizability of evidence on educational inequality.